Endurance Training
Description
To improve aerobic fitness and performance for a particular sport, athletes must train using activities stressing the cardiovascular system by using the muscle groups most commonly used in the sport. Further, the training exercises must reach minimum thresholds to sufficiently stress or overload the targeted systems, for improvement to happen. Factors influencing the stress placed on a targeted system include fitness level, duration of exercise, intensity of exercise, and frequency of exercise.
Fitness Level
Generally, people who are least aerobically fit will show the greatest improvement with endurance training. Conversely, those who already have a high level of aerobic power will have small improvements; however, even small improvements may be significant. Other factors affecting endurance training including intensity, duration, and frequency of exercise can be manipulated, based on early fitness measures, to produce the wanted adaptive responses while avoiding injury.
Exercise Intensity
The intensity of aerobic exercise prescription is usually based on a percentage of VO2max or maximum heart rate, while the intensity of anaerobic exercise prescription is based on loads. Initial or current levels of fitness must be known, so the intensity of exercise can be prescribed. Practically, however, oxygen consumption during an exercise is difficult to obtain and, therefore heart rate (linearly correlated with O2 consumption) is the most commonly used indicator of endurance exercise intensity.
In resistance training programs, initial strength levels must be evaluated through strength testing. Training intensity must exceed a minimum threshold to improve aerobic fitness. The American College of Sports Medicine places this minimum threshold at approximately 60% of maximum heart rate. With resistance training, the intensity ranges from 60% to 100% of maximal effort. The training intensity of resistance exercises depends upon the performance goals of the athlete. For increases in muscular endurance, intensities of 60% to 80% are common. For increases in muscular strength, intensities of 75% to 100% are common. Generally, it appears the higher the intensity above threshold, the greater the training improvement. Increases in exercise intensity necessitate increased muscle fiber recruitment, cell metabolism, and oxygen demands a greater adaptational response, but excessive intensity will place greater demands on anaerobic systems, lead to rapid fatigue, or cause injury.
Exercise Frequency
While some investigators stress the importance of frequency for producing aerobic and anaerobic fitness, others downgrade its role in favor of intensity and duration effects. To complicate matters, studies examining frequency effects have produced equivocal results. For example, some studies show exercise bouts, two or three times per week, elicit best aerobic training effects, but other results recommend more frequent exposures.
With resistance training, it is generally agreed 48 hours of rest is necessary for recovery of selected muscle groups. By alternating targeted muscle groups, however, daily resistance training programs can be realized.
In summary, fitness level and exercise intensity, duration, and frequency are inter-dependent variables influencing training prescription and adaptation for each individual athlete. Thus, a general recommendation for a training prescription for all athletes, who have varying levels of experience, is virtually impossible. Each athlete must be evaluated individually and be prescribed a training program accordingly. Further, in training programs where periods or training cycles are included, these variables must be adjusted accordingly. Failure to recognize these relationships can lead to poor performance or injury.
Training Specificity
Specificity of training separates the competitive athlete from the recreational athlete by allowing the athlete to optimize physical capacities for athletic success. All training of athletes should be sport-specific; for example, if you want to improve your cycling capacity, you must cycle. As basic as that statement is, so is the concept of specificity. Take the example of a basketball player, just finishing a season of playing and training. Although basketball training can be of a high intensity, as this athlete begins participation in track and field, he may find it difficult to complete running workouts. The training of the neuromuscular system is motor-skill specific and the primary movement patterns used in basketball are probably not those used in hurdling, for example. The basketball player may be in better physical condition than someone with no previous training, but still he will lack the advantage of someone who has been training specifically for a track and field event. Training programs should contain activities related as closely as possible to the skill used in competition.
Training Periods
Yearly training plans can be divided into discrete epochs (e.g., days, months) in which specific aspects are emphasized. Typically, there are three periods of training: preparatory, competitive, and transitional. Each period must precede the other in the appropriate order, to allow proper and sufficient entry into successive periods. The length of each period may vary from athlete to athlete.
Fundamentally, the athlete must exhibit certain physical qualities which will allow him to move to the next period. For example, certain strength levels must be attained in the preparatory period, before progressing to the competitive period. These levels should be determined by a coach, or trainer based on the individual athlete's previous performance levels or the performance levels of others involved in the same sport. As an athlete continues to train year round, data can be evaluated and the lengths of each period can be determined. The more years an athlete trains, the more precise the training schedule becomes.
Preparatory
This training period, perhaps the most important of the three, contains 2 phases (general and specific training) and has the highest volume and lowest intensity of work. Endurance athletes may need up to 6 months of preparatory work to allow the athlete to hold a specific working capacity. If this training period is not properly executed, more intense work later in the year may lead to poor performances and increased risk of injury.
Competitive
This period includes the time following the specific training phase of the preparatory period up to and during competition. Here, the principal aim is maximal performance. All training tries to closely simulate sporting movements and situations as competition draws near. This could mean running parts of marathons, controlled distance swims with starts and competitors, or executing training-session goals of equaling competitive times or distances.
Transition
After intense training, a period of rest and transition is recommended. Typically this involves active rest, and has a general low-intensity training and few competitive-specific movements. A renewal of mental and physical capacities, and rehabilitation of any injuries should happen during this phase of training.
Training Program Details
When designing a sport-specific, training program, the athlete, coach, and
trainer should:
(1) determine the major energy sources used in the sport
(2) determine the primary movements necessary for top performance
(3) evaluate which muscles are important for the major movements
(4) implement exercises and training techniques to challenge those muscle groups
Typically, phase 1 of the preparatory period general training comprises general strength skills. Strength is basic to all types of training, including power and endurance. Phase 2 specific training develops local muscular control and endurance. Strength derived in the general preparatory training phase is put to the test by increasing muscular contractions at a given load. The competitive period attempts to maintain VO2max, and muscular strength, delay the onset of oxygen debt, and to build lactic acid tolerance while maintaining competitive form. The effects of phases 1 and 2 in the preparatory period, will be reduced because of the specificity of training in the competitive period, but those athletes who retain the best results from each period will have a distinct performance advantage.
Overtraining
Training volume (e.g., mileage, yardage, minutes, repetitions) is related to endurance and strength performance. In this context, the athlete must be alert for over-training symptoms. The premise, more is better, is a major contributor to overtraining problems. Symptoms may be both mental and physical. Signs of mental overtraining can stem from "burnout syndrome". Daily preparation for training at stressful levels can cause mental fatigue. Lethargy, low morale, and lack of enthusiasm are just a few signs of mental overtraining.
Symptoms of physical overtraining can be due to too much work or the same type of training without change for an extended period of time. The human body is a very adaptive mechanism, but when over stimulated, it can break down. Physical signs of overtraining include chronic injuries, persistent post-workout joint and muscle soreness, loss of strength and endurance, rest, certain therapeutic measures, or restorative measures are most effective prescriptions for over training symptoms.
References
Harre, D. Principles of sports training: Based on experience and scientific research in sports in the German Democratic Republic. Berlin: Sportverlag Publication, pp. 78 87, 1982.
Sharkey, B.J. Intensity and duration of training and the development of cardiorespriatory endurance. Med. Sci. Sports 2:197 202, 1970.
Warhurst, R. Training for distance running and the steeplechase, Track and Field Quart. Rev. 85(3):13, 1985.
Zernicke, R. F., G. Salem, & R. Alejo. Endurance Training. Sports Medicine the School-Age Athlete, ed. Reider, B., Phil., PA, W.B. Saunders, 1991.
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